Factors Contributing in Construction of Gender Roles

Factors Contributing to Construction of Gender Roles

• Socio-culture factor: 
  • The roles of men and women are determined by the various cultural norms, values, beliefs, and disciplines that make up society. The social roles that men and women are perceived to play in society are vastly different. For instance, the woman is viewed as a nurturer while the guy is viewed as the family's head and primary provider of income. Males are seen as the caregivers, whereas men are seen as the providers. As a result, women and men have different roles and duties in the family and community.
• Religious factors: 
  • Religion is said to have an impact on gender roles. The majority of religions worship masculine deities including Lord Shiva, Lord Buddha, and Jesus Christ. It also affects how gender roles are portrayed in media. The many religious practices vary. Men may serve as priests, for instance, while women may serve as worshipers. A man addresses the crowd of women while delivering a religious sermon.
• Economical factors:
  • Even in paid work, men determine how productive women are outside of the home. For instance, it is believed that men should handle finances, labor, and land ownership while women should produce goods. Throughout their life, women perform a variety of unpaid domestic tasks for their children, husbands, and other family members.
• Educational factor:
  • For both girls and boys, there are several educational options and expectations. For instance, family funds are typically allocated to males' educations rather than girls'. Girls are directed toward less difficult academic assignments. Girls are assigned to the arts, language, and humanities while boys are assigned to the mathematics and science streams.
• State:
  • The legal system in most countries is patriarchal. Laws pertaining to family, marriage, and inheritance are very closely linked to the patriarchal control over the property. Almost all political institutions in society, at all levels, are male dominated, from village councils to parliament.

Impact of gender on health in the various life stages

Gender discrimination and inequalities affect both men and women since they have an impact on health and lives. Men and women both fall into the behavior pattern may delay in seeking treatment for problems, which are not congruent with the socially accepted gender roles. Discriminatory practices are known to exist in the sites and rituals at birth and death.

• Intrauterine period: Son preference is prevalent in many countries and Nepal is not an exception of this preference. For example:
  • Many communities and societies pray and perform for the birth of a male child so women are forced to bear children repeatedly until the male child is born.
  • Prenatal Sex Determination (PNDT) is carried out by many clinics to determine the sex of the unborn child. When the PNDT reveals female fetus, pregnancy is terminated resulting in female foeticide.
• Neonatal period:
  • Girls and Boys are treated differently right from birth. Birth of girls is not celebrated with the same interest as the birth of the boys. The birth of girls is taken as a burden from the beginning of the life. An unwanted female baby is not likely to receive the same attention during neonatal illness as a special male baby.
• Infancy and childhood:
  • Boys are cared for with greater luxury than girls. Differences exist in the provision of weaning type, quality, and quantity of food. Girl infants face more nutritional problems compared to boys. Financial resources utilized for treating minor ailments and diseases of girl infants are minimal compared to boys.

The unequal treatment and the difference in child rearing practices of girls and boys have a direct impact on the mortality and morbidity of the children. There is a difference in providing the education for girls as their school enrollment and retention is lower.

• Adolescence:
  • Adolescent girls are at risk of sexual harassment and abuse within and outside the home. N many places, they are attracted or sold into prostitution. Nutritional deficiency diseases like iron deficiency anemia are common in adolescent girls. Girls are taken as a heavy burden for the family and they are also deprived of the educations.
  • Whereas adolescent boys are vulnerable to the violence and homicide associated with stereotyped masculine traits and attitudes. Injuries related to sports and road accidents are common on them due to social and peer pressures. They engaged in antisocial behaviors, may be exposed to early or unsafe sexual relations.
• Adulthood:
  • Male and female face different levels of exposure to diseases during adulthood due to biological as well as gender differences. Some of the impacts are as follows:
    • Female:
      • Pregnancy and childbirth-related problems
      • Anemia
      • Physiological problems: depression is most common
      • Physical and sexual violence within or outside the home
      • Gynaecological complications
      • Forced abortions etc.
    • Male:
      • Conditions like cirrhosis of the liver, lung cancer, hemophilia, hernias and coronary artery disease are more common among men.
      • Alcohol consumption and smoking
      • Some occupational hazards and problems
• Elderly:
  • It is well-known facts that the older suffer due to biological as well as social decline. Old people face greater negligence though their needs are higher due to poor control over resources. Women are generally live longer than men but not necessarily healthier lives. Some common problems are; osteoporosis, mental depression, other mental problems etc.

Gender analysis framework

In order to recognize, comprehend, and address gender disparities, general analysis is the systematic gathering and assessment of data on gender differences and social interactions. It is the initial stage in developing and putting into practice gender-sensitive health policies, initiatives, services, and health research.

• Gender roles and norms: In all societies, men and women are expected to behave in gender perspective way. They are socialized from the childhood to conform to masculine and feminine roles and norms. They have to dress differently, play different kinds of games, be interested in different issues and subjects and different responses to situations.
• Gender-based division of labor: In almost all societies, women and men perform different activities, although the nature and range of these activities vary across classes and societies. Women are typically responsible for child care and household work whereas men are responsible for meeting the household needs for food and resources.
• Access and control resources: Access is the ability to use a resource while control is the ability to define and make decisions about the use of a resource. There are various resources available in the family and community. Some of they are as follows:
  • Economic resources
  • Political resources
  • Social resources
  • Information/education
  • Time
  • Internal resources
• Power and decision making: usually men make a powerful decision than women do. These powers are related to physical to physical forces, knowledge and skills, wealth and income and position of authority. Men often have greater decision-making power over reproduction and sexuality.

Gender mainstreaming

Gender mainstreaming is the public policy concept of assessing the different implications for women and men of any planned policy action, including legislation and programs, in all areas and levels. Mainstreaming essentially offers a pluralistic approach that values the diversity among both men and women.

The concept of gender mainstreaming was first proposed at the 1985 Third World Conference on Women in Nairobi, Kenya. The idea has been pushed by the United Nations development community.

Gender mainstreaming is defined by UNECOSOC as “the process of assessing the implications for women and men of any planned action, including legislation, policies or programs in any area and all levels. It is a strategy for making women’s as well as men’s concerns and experiences an integral dimension in designing, implementing and monitoring and evaluating policies and programs in all political, economic and social sphere, such that inequality between men and women is not perpetuated.”

Gender mainstreaming takes into account the gender differences/addressing gender inequalities in overall goal, structures, rule for running the organization, the entire range of programs and policies, allocation of resources/finances, organizational structure, job description, staffing, monitoring and evaluation system (FHD, DOHS, MOH, Nepal government, IOM facilitator guide, 2003).

Gender friendly services

Health professionals can play an important role in identifying and addressing gender-based inequities in health. However, health professionals themselves should become gender sensitive before they can address gender concerns in their professional works. In another word, they must wear the gender lens and look at clients not only as patients but as men and women who have been influenced by prevailing gender perception and roles.

Gender-based violence

Gender-based violence means violence inflicted or suffered based on gender differences, such as female foeticide, infanticide, homicide, sexual abuse etc. it is commonly used as means of violence against girls and women.

Any act of gender base violence that results in, or is likely to result in, physical, sexual or psychological harm or suffering to women, including to threats of violence, coercion or arbitrary deprivation of liberty whether according in public or private life.

Types of gender-based violence:

• Domestic violence:
  • Domestic violence (also named domestic abuse, spousal abuse, intimate partner violence, battering, or family violence) is a pattern of behavior which involves violence or other abuse by one person against another in a domestic setting, such as in marriage or cohabitation. Intimate partner violence (IPV) is violence by a spouse or partner in an intimate relationship with the other spouse or partner. Domestic violence can take place in heterosexual and same-sex family relationships and can involve violence against children in the family.
  • Domestic violence can take a number of forms, including physical, verbal, emotional, economic, religious, and sexual abuse, which can range from subtle, coercive forms to marital rape and to violent physical abuse such as female genital mutilation and acid throwing that result in disfigurement or death. Domestic murders include stoning, bride burning, honor killings, and dowry deaths.
• Custodial violence:
  • The protective care or guardianship of institutions/people or system. Nature of abuse includes physical or verbal harassment to sexual and physical torture. It is a senseless exhibition of superiority and physical power over the one who is less powered. The violation of human rights under the shield of uniform and authority between the four walls of a police station, lock up and prison where the victims are very helpless.
  • These are the four major aspects of custodial violence:
    • Torture
      • Mental
      • Physical
    • Sexual harassment
    • Rape
    • Death
• Public violence and trafficking:
  • Public violence includes teasing, forced prostitution, and mass rape. It may occur in public places like a vehicle, street, school, working place, markets etc. human trafficking is also known as economic violence.
  • It is the illegal trade of human beings for the purpose of reproductive slavery, commercial sexual exploitation, forced labor etc. it is second only to drug trafficking as the most profitable illegal industry in the world. It includes bonded labor, forced labor, sex trafficking, child labor etc.
• GBV in a conflict situation:
  • Conflict increases all forms of GBV. Mass displacement leading to more vulnerability of women and children. Examples are mass rape, military sexual slavery, forced prostitution, forced marriage, and pregnancy. Women forced to offer sex for survival, or in exchange for food, shelter or protection.
• Special forms of GBAA in Nepal: few examples are:
  • Bonded family
  • Deuki pratha
  • Kumara pratha
  • Badi
  • Jhuma
  • Bhatti pasal and restaurant etc.
• Others are physical and sexual torture, mental or psychological harassment or torture.

Causes of gender-based violence

Consequences of GBV

The consequences of GBV can be broadly categorized as fatal and nonfatal:

• Fatal
  • Homicide: it may be related to honor killings and killings due to intimate partner disputes. It occurs in form of burning, poisoning etc.
  • Suicide: psychological impact such as depression, lack of support from family etc.
  • Maternal deaths: it may be related to violence during pregnancy, postnatal period.
  • AIDS-related deaths: it is related to sexual exploitation, human trafficking, forced prostitution etc.
• Nonfatal
  • Physical impact: bodily injuries, functional impairment permanent disabilities, organ damage etc.
  • Functional disorders: chronic pain syndrome, irritable bowel syndrome etc.
  • Impact on reproduction health: unwanted pregnancy, STIS, HIV, gynecological problems, miscarriage etc.
  • Impact on mental health: depression, post-traumatic syndrome, fear, anxiety, phobias, eating disorders etc.

On the other hand, gender-based violence has a consequential effect on society, which are:

• Effects on productivity and development
• Additional cost to the family and society

REFERENCE

Ambika Rai, Kabita Dahal. Community Health Nursing II. Kathmandu: Makalu Publication House, 2012 (reprint).

Dr.Suwal S.N. & Tuitui R. (2063) A Textbook of Community Health Nursing, 1st edition, Vidyarthi Prakashan (P). Ltd. Kamalpokhari, Kathmandu

Ambika Rai, Kabita Dahal. Community Healtrh Nursing-II. Kathmandu: Makalu Publication House, 2011.

Tuitui, Roshani. Community Health Nursing. kathmandu: Vidyarthi Prakashan (P.) LTD., 2067.